Of quotes, praphrases, and reports

Journals don't usually require a certain number of words; they have a maximum allowed number. However, within the community, a write-up of around 6,000 words is a recognized minimum. When I used to debate, the standard speech was 7 minutes, give or take 15 seconds. The Grand Chancellor of our debate explained during training that anything more can get boring. Anything less is insubstantial.

There are reasons why there's the expected number of words. However, you don't just write anything you want or get snippets of quotes to fill those numbers up.

Another phenomenon in writing is the idea of originality, achieved by ensuring you cite a lot. This can get quite paradoxical and confusing if one does not know the process. If you cite, the material isn't yours, even if you put the in-text and the bibliographic reference. So how is it original? Let's go through understanding the strategies in writing to address these principles.

Structure

As discussed in the previous posts, your writing should always have a thesis. The entire manuscript, your paper, has one. The main argument. It doesn't end there. When you outline, you establish sub-thesis, sub-arguments, or sub-topics supporting the central argument. These then become the sections of your paper. Within each section, each paragraph should support the sub-thesis, sub-argument, or sub-topic of that section. The structure of each paragraph has a central topic. The topic sentence. Anything else within that paragraph should either support or explain the topic sentence. It is from here that you generate your citations.

When you illustrate a point or prove that the point is real, you use examples. You can use hypotheticals - imaginary scenarios. That's okay, but if you use hypotheticals throughout the paper, this isn't research anymore; it is a writer imagining things. You use examples from the world of experience. Either your collected data or the data from analyzed, collected, or reported data by other published works. So, you cite. When you need to explain, you narrow down (deduct) or work up your ideas (induct) one sentence at a time. The deductive process means breaking down a generalized idea and relaying the component parts. Inductive is a reverse. You bring specific ideas, leading to a generalized one.

Take, for example, you are writing about how internet trolls are muddying the Duterte-ICC discourse. That's the central topic of the paragraph. You then explain different ways that a discourse can get muddied. Take note, I use the word explain. That means that you are defining or walking the reader through the process. Using examples is a different case. You can mix those up. 

That one was deductive. How about an inductive one? Let's say you argue in the paragraph that the sovereignty issue in the Duterte-ICC discourse is one of the factors in the muddied discourse. That's something specific. You can then proceed to explain the essence of sovereignty. Then, explain the issue at the ICC. Then, relate the troll narratives. Then, synthesize how each of these elements leads toward a muddied discourse.

You cite each piece of evidence you use to support your argument. For each explanation, you might have to refer to ideas from reputable references, so you also cite them. In the previous sample, in explaining the issue of the ICC, unless you were there hearing what happened, you will have to cite the news or, better yet, a press release from ICC (the difference would be that the news is a secondary source while the press release can be primary). If you were there in the field, you mention it, thus proving your point.

Matter

The evidence you use can take the common form of quotes and paraphrases. Some forget to report. Some forget what a precis is. Let's learn how to use them.

Quotes

We use quotes to preserve the essence of what the original author said and to engage with their ideas within our text. When you write, begin with a budget on quotes in mind and use technical terms that may be original to the author. Nowadays, originality is measured through similarity match percentage using text-computing software on plagiarism; the most popular is TurnITIn. Even without such software, professional readers will notice that a 10-page paper is half quotes and half the writer's text. Sometimes, it's obviously even more. So, you minimize the quotes and reserve them for essential statements. Then, if you use a lot of technical words that the writer uses, this will reduce your quote budget. Always remember that a direct quote will require not just the author and date for the in-text citation but you will also need to mention the page number/s. I.e. (Castillo, 2023, p. 8).

Paraphrase

A paraphrase is a rephrasing of the original statement while retaining its essence. It is the number one method of avoiding plagiarism. Some people paraphrase everything, which can get clunky. But it's safe. A vast vocabulary is useful. A thesaurus can also be helpful. Another thing you need to remember is the perspective or the mode of how to say the original statement. Depending on the writing style (APA, Chicago, etc.). You should also mention the page number in the in-text citation.

Precis

A precis is a summary of the idea expressed through a rephrased statement. You won't need to mention the page number, primarily if the precis refers to an entire book or article. If you are referring to a section, mention the page number/s. 

Reports

Sometimes, you will see that the reference you are referring to is also referring to another work. It's best to include the reference of both works if you refer to such. For example, Castillo (2023) referred to Knight (1603) in defining the idea of misogyny. Why not just refer to Knight? In this case, there's more than one reason. The primary is that you might not have known about Knight without Castillo. Practice ethics! Second, Knight's reference is too old; Castillo adds a certain degree of dated relevance.  What if Knight was only one or a couple of years back? Refer to the first reason.

This is not the only way to report. You can use a precis to report not just the author's idea but also what the author did. Castillo (2023) content-analyzed film. In Castillo's (2023) content analysis of Harry Potter, he found that... 

Another thing to report is conversations. When authors cite, they engage with other writers. Sometimes, not just one. So you can report that. Castillo (2023) arrived at an understanding of misogyny through a review of works such as those of Knight (1603), Bishop (1888), and Pawn (2022). Note the difference between simply paraphrasing and lining them up in sequence. A report is yours, not anybody else's. That adds both originality and style to your writing.

No need to fill in numbers

Given these guidelines, you won't have to worry about filling in the numbers. You may have to trim your writing because of the breadth of what you wrote. It will also help both you and your reader because you will have expressed what you need to express, hopefully, in a clear way.

Just a short note: What to think about when writing a proposal

Title

Hook

Puzzle

Research Questions

Thesis statement

RRL

Method

Structure your process

Maximize your word processor

I haven't had the time to blog for quite some time since it's all-hands-on-deck for me to finalized my dissertation. Now that I've completed my manuscript, here's some important reminders for anyone who is writing.

Methodical steps in writing often get things done smoothly and right. I hate wasting time and effort only to have to redo things. What can we do to organize our writing? Please note that what I share in this blog post is on using Microsoft Word. Other word processing software may have different processes.

Using automated cross-references 

First off is captioning your figures. I hope you already uses the automated numbering of captions for figures. This is especially helpful if you have a large number of figures or if you figures across different chapters or sections of your manuscript. 

But what if you have to add a new figure between two already existing figures in separate pages? For example, your page 10 has Figure 1 and your page 15 has Figure two and you need to add a new one on page 11? Or you have Figure 3 on page 16 and would like to move it to page 11? Just click the inserted figure, then choose INSERT CAPTION. Sometimes the Figure numbers will automatically adjust, if they don't then just RIGHT-CLICK on the figure number and choose UPDATE FIELD. Just repeat these on the affected ones as necessary.

But why use this when you can just type the words Figure and the corresponding number? These automated devices through the word processor can help with other parts of your writing. One is through cross-references. When you need to refer to such automated sets of items in your manuscript, what you need to do is insert a cross reference. 

Example, you have Figure 1. Then you are writing and your refer to it, such as saying "Figure 1 shows the conceptual framework." Or the conceptual framework (Figure 1)..." 

Don't type the text "Figure 1" !!!!!

Rather use the cross-reference feature of MS Word. There are two locations where the cross-reference button is located (see the photos below).

CROSS-REFERENCE button through the REFERENCE tab

CROSS-REFERENCE button through the INSERT tab

Instead of writing "Figure 1" you should place the cursor on the location in the document then click the cross-reference button. This will open the window below.

CROSS-REFERENCE window

The three important parts of this window are REFERENCE TYPE, FOR WHICH NUMBERED ITEM, and INSERT REFERENCE TO.

There are several reference types. Since y ou are writing about a figure, choose FIGURE for REFERENCE TYPE. The under FOR WHICH NUMBERED ITEM will change into the list of your existing figures. Click the figure you want to refer to, then for INSERT REFERENCE TO, choose ONLY LABEL AND NUMBER. The label and number are the text Figure and the corresponding number. Once done, click the INSERT button below the window. This will result into an automated text that will read "Figure x" depending on the number of the figure you are referring to. Because the text is cross-reference to the actual figure, then any changes in numbering that may happen, whether while you are writing or if you require revision, then the text can easily be adjust to match the changes. Just like with the caption, if you need to adjust the numbers, just RIGHT-CLICK on the figure number in the paragraph and choose UPDATE FIELD.

Anotrher useful part of cross-reference is the capacity to have auto-updating references to parts of your manuscript. Top tier journals have tables of compliance for revisions. This makes the revisions easier to track. I applied this to my own dissertation so that the comments during my proposal are summed up in a table that I placed in the appendix. A part of this table is a column of the comunts, a column for the name/s of commiittee/panel members who gave the comment, then a column of what I did in response, and a third column pointing towards the page where the revision is. This makes your work clean and professional. But what if a change in the manuscript adjusts the page numbers? Would you have to recheck each page number that you wrote? 

Well, that's sloppy. What you should be doing is use cross-reference. Regarding this, you are referring to page numbers and not to figure numbers. So, for REFERENCE TYPE, choose NUMBERED ITEM. The list on FOR WHICH NUMBERED ITEM will be similar to the ones listed above the headings (more on these later) you used. Choose which part you need to refer to (such as your framework, or literature review). For INSERT REFERENCE TO, just choose PAGE NUMBER. Clicking  INSERT will insert the page number that even hyperlinks to the specific page. And just like any of the cross-references, RIGHT-CLICK on the number and choose UPDATE FIELD. to allow it to automatically adjust if ever the pages in your manuscript has changed.

BOOKMARK button through the INSERT tab

Sometimes, you have to refer to a page containing a specific paragraph. If your manuscript uses paragraph numbers, then you can use that. But that's seldom used. What you can do is go to the paragraph, highlight it, then click BOOKMARK (see the photo above). This will record the paragraph as a specific item of bookmark. In fact, when you click the BOOKMARK button, you will be prompted to name the bookmark. One you have done all the bookmarks you need. You can select bookmark as REFERENCE TYPE. The list on FOR WHICH NUMBERED ITEM will now change to the list of bookmark names you made. Choose the one you need to refer to and choose PAGE NUMBER for INSERT REFERENCE TO. 

Using the automated table of contents and automated list of figures

Writing the table of contents can be tedious and making sure that the page numbers do refer to the correct page locations. It's again a sloppy work if you do this manually. All you need to do is click the corresponding button to insert an automated table of contents. You can also do the same for your list of figures.

Everytime you need to make sure that these two tables are correct, just RIGHT-CLICK and choose UPDATE FIELD.

TABLE OF CONTENTS button through the REFERENCES tab

TABLE OF FIGURES button through the REFERENCES tab

It is important to know that these buttons will yield black results if you did not use automated captions for figures and if you did not use the STYLE system for your headings.

The STYLE button is located in the HOME tab. You can format each of the styles of headings here depending on the writing style that you are using, whether APA or Chicago, or MLA. The formatting however is manual. You will have to assign the format for each heading number in the system with the appropriate elements such as bodlface, italics, But after you've done this, simply clicking on the STYLE button and  and selecting the appropriate style will automatically do two things. 

1. It will format the text based on the chosen style.
2. It will refer to that text based on the chosen style.

STYLE button through the HOME tab

The standard style options in MS Word

Part of writing style is the used of headings. Those are the titles of the different sections and subsections of your manuscript. For example, "Chapter 1" can be considered as Heading 1. "Introduction" and "Statement of the Problem" can be considered as Heading 2 texts. Any other sub-sections under a Heading 2 can be Heading 3 as needed. For example, "Background of the Study" can be a Heading 2. If you have 3 topics for the background, then the titles for each will be Heading 3.

These the titles that you used for each headings will be recorded in your documents system. When you generate the automated table of contents, it will list these headings and their corresponding pages. These headings will also become part of the navigation pane. Pressing CTRL+F will open the navigation pane and display each heading. You can click each heading if you want to automatically teleport to that section of your manuscript. Headings also function as REFERENCE TYPE in cross-references.

If you convert your MS Word document into a PDF, these cross-references and automated elements can function as hyperlinks so that clicking them can automatically open the page that you need. The navigation pane will also appear in the PDF and will serve as a useful tool in reaching specific sections of the document.

So, I hope you can use these helpful tools. I wrote this blog also thinking that whoever reads this at least knows how to go about MS Word even if not knowing all the special powers of this software. Please comment if there's anything that needs clarification. Also remember, these tools are meant to help make life easy. Avoid sloppy work, use the tools. We still, however need to guide the intelligence of the software i.e. updating fields whenever you know you've made significant changes.

Writing in Style

The stress of data gathering and navigating your way around the substance of your argument can sometimes impact your writing style, especially when you are not a writer. Here are essential things to remember when writing research, especially one's thesis or dissertation. This is also important when writing CVs and resumes. 

If it's a school thesis or class paper, make sure to format the manuscript according to the prescribed format. What's the paper size? In Taiwan, it's customary to use A4. In the Philippines, it's Letter size. How about the font style and size? When there's no prescribed font, my go-to is Palatino Linotype 11. Should the paragraphs be aligned left or justified? 

Those are basic, but it's important to know them because it's part of the institutional signature. Now for a bit of advanced style. What's the prescribed referencing and writing style? And by that, we mean APA, Chicago, MLA, and other schools of style. Those are not just for citations. If your university or class does not have prescriptions for headings and subheadings, captioning figures, and titles on tables, those have them. So, if your references follow APA 7th, they follow the same on your headings, subheadings, captions, and table titles. 

Let's get more professional. Mastering the data means you know how to report the data. You don't just write down your qualitative and quantitative results. There are styles for reporting evidentiary data in your results and discussion depending on the data type. More often, you follow the same school as the citation, for example, on how to report different statistical data and on how to report interview quotes. A deeper difference is on block texts.  You move away from the paragraph and start a block text if the quote is more than 40 words in APA; in Chicago, you do so if the quote is more than 100 words. Any quote with less remains within the regular paragraph text.

These make your manuscript acceptable for publication in a journal at first glance. Of course, what will finally get you final approval is the content. But you need to first do the secret handshake. This is the secret handshake. The editors and writers see style, and they recognize that someone who submitted is part of the club when they see the style of the manuscript.

Lastly, if you are writing a thesis or dissertation. These all go into the section on Notes on Style. If your university has no prescription and is flexible on the parts of the manuscript, you can also add it.

The Notes on Style reports the style that you followed.

I am doing this on my dissertation as a reminder for myself and as a shortcut for panel/committee members. This helps them to easily identify the style used and be in compliance with any prescribed styles.

Applying for Scholarship in Taiwan

Taiwan offers several scholarship opportunities for Filipinos intending to pursue higher education. Here's Scholarship 101: Taiwan based on my experience and updated based on current developments since my own admission for PhD.

Information Sources:

As a student, the best place to go in person for scholarships is your school's Student Guidance and/or Career Office. The staff in those offices are always nice and helpful in any school, so don't hesitate to go.

Aside from that, for specific Taiwan scholarships offered to Pinoys, you can check out:

• roc-taiwan.org -  the official site of the Taiwan Economic and Cultural Office (TECO) in the Philippines. This will be your go-to aside from information. You will be going here for your education documents authentication, scholarship application, and VISA. 
• Taiwan Scholarships in the Philippines - FB page run by TECO education division, a good spot to follow for announcements.
• Taiwan in the Philippines - the TECO general FB page.
• Manila Economic and Cultural Office - FFB page of the Philippine equivalent of TECO.

Time Management:

Be sure to take note of dates, times, periods, or seasons. Here are important tips:

• Make sure that you have ample time to process your documents. For example, do you already have your transcript? Is it already internationally authenticated? 
• The two main semesters are the Fall and Spring seasons. make sure to check announcements during this time for calls for admissions and the opening of scholarship applications.

Documents to Prepare:

Each scholarship has its own requirements list, but I'll be taking note here of significant items that one needs to know as one applies to study abroad. Also, these documents are used when you apply for school admissions, which is usually before the scholarship application process.

• Authenticated Transcript and Diploma: Since you'll be studying in another jurisdiction, you need to have your education documents authenticated. The process goes as follows:

1. Make a request through your school.
2. Get the authentication from CHED Philippines.
3. Get the authentication from the Department of Foreign Affairs Philippines.
4. Get the authentication from TECO.

Note: TECO has had a requirement of using A4, so make sure that your documents are in A4, also photocopies should be colored. Just make sure to double check at the TECO website.

• English Language Competency: usually TOEFL or IELTS, or if your school uses English as an official mode of instruction, you can just request this from your register.
• Make sure to check out the international admissions office website and social media of the school you are applying to. Schools do not process the scholarship, but they provide updates, announcements, forms, and info sessions that can be of great help.

THE SCHOLARSHIPS:

I'm reposting the exact wording from TECO's website. These are details for scholarship applications 2024. Please note that some logistic details change per year, i.e. the time period of applications. It's always best to check the updated list at the website. I'm just reposting here so that you have a general idea.

Begin Repost

1.Ministry of Education (MOE) Scholarship : Grants a 4-year scholarship for undergraduate studies, a 2-year scholarship for Master's, and a grant of up to 4 years for Doctoral Degree. The MOE will shoulder up to 40,000 NTD each semester for the corresponding tuition and miscellaneous expenses. The remaining costs will be shouldered by the scholarship recipient. An additional 15,000 NTD will be given to recipients undertaking university undergraduate studies, 20, 000 NTD for those pursuing their Master's and Ph.D. as the monthly stipend. 

The application is from February 1 to April 30, 2024. 

Website:  https://edu.law.moe.gov.tw/EngLawContent.aspx?lan=E&id=250

2. Huayu (Mandarin) Enrichment Scholarship : Allows applicants to choose to pursue either 3 or 6 months of Mandarin courses, subject to TECO's approval. The grant provides a monthly stipend of 25,000 NTD to cover all the expenses (tuition, miscellaneous, etc.) 

The application is from February 1 to March 31, 2024. 

Website:  https://edu.law.moe.gov.tw/EngLawContent.aspx?lan=E&id=70

3. International Cooperation and Development Fund (ICDF): The grant covers the full tuition fee, living expenses, economy class airfare tickets, and textbook costs. Scholars pursuing Master's will receive a monthly stipend of 18, 000 NTD and 20, 000 NTD for those pursuing Doctoral degrees.  

The application is from December 1, 2023 to March 15, 2024. 

Website: https://www.icdf.org.tw/wSite/np?ctNode=31561&mp=2

Each applicant can only apply for one scholarship program among these offerings and must process first their university admission to their preferred university in Taiwan. They also have to comply with and submit necessary scholarship requirements to Taipei Economic and Cultural Office in the Philippines for review and recommendation based on the indicated deadlines of each program. It is important to note that it is ineligible to apply if the applicant currently has enrolled in another program in Taiwan .

End Repost

Source: https://www.roc-taiwan.org/ph_en/post/5713.html

Here's to a successful scholarship application! May you graduate and enter history.

Photo Credit: https://gatherer.wizards.com/Pages/Card/Details.aspx?multiverseid=79179

Reference Management Software: Mendeley

There are a lot of things to do in the academic wilderness, so let's make sure that we work smart and make use of the proper tools. Let's learn smart citations for this post.

Most students google the citation for a reference, then copy-paste it into their reference list. Then, type the in-text citations. 

Some do the supposedly smart thing of generating the citation from the journal webpage where they got the journal, then copy-paste it into their reference list. Then, type the in-text citations.

Those are actually somewhat smart, but not really.

Please make use of a citation tool. It will help make things convenient and leave you free to read, analyze, and write.

I personally use Mendeley citation software because it's free. Named after Dmitri Mendeleev, the software was created by three PhD students. The software was such a success that Elsevier brought the rights to it and further developed it. Beyond the issue of being purchased by a company, this software works with .ris, .bib, and .xml file types. These three file types are citation files that you can download from journals, which you can then import to Mendeley.

Let's go through the steps to get to know this program. 

The Software/s:

Note: I'm not adding most of the links because links might change. Just google search names of the software that I will mention. 

Go to www.mendeley.com. Create an account. Your citation data will be saved here, aside from the software. This lets you work wherever you are. Remember your password.

Download and install the Mendeley Reference Manager software. This is the main software. Once installed, you log in using your account. Your citation data will be synced here. 

The first optional add-on is Mendeley Desktop. This software is the old version, which I didn't initially like, but it has the capacity to make footnote citations. So, while we wait for Mendeley Reference Manager to update and have the power to make footnotes, make sure you have Mendeley Desktop if you do research that needs to have footnote citations.

You will also need the following add-ons. These two are a must. One is Mendeley Web Importer, and the other is Mendeley Cite for MS Word. If you want to use Mendeley Desktop, you will also have to get the MS Word Plugin. All these have download links at the TOOLS tab of your Mendeley Reference Manager and your Mendeley Desktop, so just go to the tools in each program and download and install the needed add-ons.

Note: Mendeley Web Importer is an extension of Chrome. Once added, make sure that you organize your extensions and place the Mendeley Importer Button on the Google Chrome bar.

Lastly, if you are willing to spend for convenience, purchase the Uploader for Mendeley for your Apple smartphone or tablet. It costs around 50-60 PHP. Super convenient. I'm not sure if there's a Google Play version, but as I searched, I think there's a different app, and it's free in Google Play. Please remember, Uploader for Mendeley is an OPTION. You don't need to buy it if you can't spare the amount for the purchase.

I'll further explain how to use them below; for now, here's a summary list of things to download and install.

1. Mendeley Referece Manager (Main Program)
2. Mendeley Web Importer (A Must)
3. Mendeley Cite (A Must)
4. Uploader for Mendeley (Optional)
5. Mendeley Desktop (Optional)

Getting citation data while on your computer

This is where you need Mendeley Web Importer. Make sure its installed on your Google Chrome. You then search for references on Google or Google Scholar or any high-quality and reputable journal databases such as Jstor, Taylor and Francis, and Sage. 

Once you have a certain chosen journal on display on Chrome, just click the Mendeley Web Importer Button. Just sign in if you still need to. Then, the citation data for that material will appear. You can double-check two sets of information:

First is the citation info for that article. Second is that Mendeley has searched the journal and has recommended related literature, you can check the ones that you think are relevant. Once everything is ok, then click "add." The data will then be synced to your Mendeley account and Mendeley Reference Manager.

Most automatic data are available if you are accessing a journal article from a reputable/high-quality publisher. If you are accessing books, news articles, or websites, then you will have to fill in some of the data.

Getting citation data while on a mobile device

Uploader for Mendeley is a useful tool for those who work on mobile devices it works just like the Web Mendeley Importer above, though it does not give related literature recommendations. Just open a journal article and click the share button on the Safari or Chrome browser bar. Check the info, then just click "save."

Managing citation data

Important things to note. Make sure that the data is complete. Remember that the machines help us, but they can't completely take over (yer :D ), so double-check the data before clicking "add" or "save."

You can always edit on your Mendeley Reference Manager or through your account by going to Mendeley.com and opening the library. The online library can also check for double entries. 

Using Mendeley on Word

If you are using Mendeley Desktop, you can make things easier by using alt+m, and it will open a reference search. So, start your sentence, then if you need a text citation, do alt+m then search the reference, select it, then press "ok" or "enter." For multiple references to cite, select and collect each on the search bar before pressing "ok" or "enter." 

In Mendeley Reference Manager, you have to click Mendeley Cite at the REFERENCES toolbar of MS Word, sign in, search for the reference, select it by checking it, and then click "insert citation." For multiple references to cite, just select those by checking each, then click "insert citation."

Thus far, these are the initial uses of Mendeley. Use it, and you'll find that you can do more, such as automatically shifting citation styles and editing in-text citations. See you next post. For now, I will take the winter vacation and maybe post again if inspiration or any need intrudes on a post.

Image Source: https://gatherer.wizards.com/Pages/Card/Details.aspx?multiverseid=583634

Stealing Thunder

One of the reasons that I'm thankful for having had debate experience in college is that it helped me with reasoning and eventually helped me in writing my thesis and any class papers that I had in my years during my Master's and my Ph.D. There is a debate strategy called stealing one's thunder wherein you use your opponent's arguments against them or use their arguments or even evidence to help you win. It seems underhanded but quite valid. It's an advanced version of exploiting your enemy's weaknesses.

This, however, only translates directly into research writing. Remember, we discussed ethics last week. There's no enemy in research per se. But in research, you converse with the accomplishments of those who have come before you. This is a  mark of professionalism and of expertise. Being professional and an expert means that you know the body of literature surrounding the topic that you want to study (reviewing literature). They also mean that you know how to situate yourself and your idea among what ideas already exist (research gap). Lastly, professionalism and expertise imply that you know how to operate ideas in such a way that you can use them to argue a valid point (thesis statement).

Let's cover them today.

Practically a thesis means two things that both relate to each other. It means a valid argument that you can back up with evidence.  It is also a written manuscript containing the same argument with all the evidence and processes (methods) used to support your claim.

Take for example, scientific theses such as:

• Darwin's theory that species do change over time became the theory of evolution.
• Newton's that a force causes objects to be pulled to one another depending on their mass, which became the Law of Gravity.

In Political Science, there are:

• Michel stated that in every group, power will always form a pyramid, with the elite at the top. This became the Law of Oligarchy.
• Kant's was that Democracies do not start wars; non-democracies do. Hence if there's no non-democracy in the world, then there will be no one to start wars. This became the Principle of Perpetual Peace.

Some of those examples have already been tried and tested; they are laws and not theories any more. Theories can still be tested, expanded, or improved.

This is where the conversation between the researcher and those who have made accomplishments comes in. That's why we review the literature. What has already been argued about our topic? Which is nearest to the topic? What are we doing regarding this?

When you have found the nearest or closest theory to your thesis, you can use this to frame your argument. It becomes the focal point of discussion. It will help frame your research questions, and it will help frame your thesis statement. This also provides a pathway to what needs to be conceptualized.

Extensions/Variations

When you test a theory, you either affirm if it is true or not in the particular location or population that you proposed. Take, for example, Darwin's theory of evolution. He made his observations in the Galapagos islands. Then, can you use the same methods of observation and check if the principle is the same in some islands in northern Europe? 

One of my preliminary lectures when I used to handle Political Science as a Profession was the story of Chris Wlezein, who proposed the theory of thermostatic response. That the voters are like thermostats. If you saturate them with one policy, they will choose the candidate from an opposing party in the next elections. Wlezein used this in the U.S. in a particular state but found that his formula needed to be revised in other states. The theory is faulty, so he went back to his drawing board and proposed the element of salience in the formula. Eventually, the formula did not work in any other location, making the theory stronger.  As a note. Just because there are lots of Democrat policies during this term doesn't mean that voters will thermostatically respond and vote Republican in the next election. But what makes this work is that if there are a lot of salient (noticeable) policies, then the thermostatic response can be activated. 

Going back, the story also tells us what happens when we test a theory, and it turns out to not work or be false in the location or population that we proposed; then, part of our professionalism and expertise is to extend the theory or provide a variation. Both terms are the same. I encountered extensions in British Parliamentary format debates. The closing teams extend the proposals of the opening teams.  In research, we provide an alternative theory, or we propose a variation to the theory by adding a new element to it that helps make it work or make it better in explaining the world around us.

As we close today, please check out the quote on our Magic: the Gathering card for the day. It reminds us of ethical practice in research and the practicalities of knowing the field of literature. I apologize for the late post. Tune in to the next post where we discuss the use of Mendeley citation tool.

Image Source: https://gatherer.wizards.com/Pages/Card/Details.aspx?printed=false&multiverseid=51088