Political science disciplinary
history identifies an open minded (eclectic
view). It uses the minimalist definition
of science which reads:
"systematic enquiry, building toward an ever more highly-differentiated
set of ordered propositions about the empirical world” (Goodin and
Klingemann, 1996).
Our discipline makes
propositions, scientific statements about the world – particularly the
political world. i.e. “Power tends to corrupt, but absolute power corrupts absolutely” (Online Library of Liberty, 2014). The
quote originates from John Dalberg Acton.
Also known as Lord Acton, he described people who hold power in his
statement. Leading to a hypothesis that
the more power a person holds, the greater the tendency that person has to become
corrupt both as a person and in handling affairs of state.
The minimalist definition of
science used here is in contrast to the maximalist perspective which qualifies the
words “scientific enquiry”, seen above, as the use of only mathematical and
experimental methods. To use the
minimalist view is a mature way of accepting the variety of systematically
built ideas since the time of ancient Greece to the present. The progress
part of the perspective helps us identify where the improvements were. So let us begin at the 1st two points
of the timeline. I will not write the
specifics that can simply be read from the book. This lecture is about insights in
understanding it.
- First a note on time:
- Greece – ancient time (start approx.. 400 - 001 B.C.)
- Rome – Early Middle Ages (Start of A.D. 001-499)
- Medieval – Middle Ages (approx. 500-1299)
- Renaissance – Late Middle Ages (1300-1599)
- Enlightenment – Early Modern (1600)
- Modern – 19th Century (1800)
Greece and Rome and the Middle Ages
Plato and Aristotle did classify
governments. Here they tried to answer:
What are the different forms of government, or by what form can we better
govern man. The timeline started with
Plato who used metaphysics – Greek ta
meta phisika “that which is beyond the physical”. His process was by way of logical
reasoning. Using the essence of virtues
as arguments. This was somewhat improved
by Aristotle who used empiricism by comparing actual constitutions as a process
for analysis and answering the question mentioned earlier. He also makes a somewhat scientific stance
when he proposes polities as solutions to the problem of governance mimicking a
doctor prescribing medicine (Almond, 1996).
But there was something missing, the several polis of the Hellenes (Greek nation) was a small world in the Aegean part of Europe. These philosophers may have had the advantage of discourse, but they were big fish living in a small pond. The rise of empire through Alexander solved this by expanding the known world across continents (Europe, Africa, Asia). From this, the Stoics, a school of Philosophy began the ideas of 1) Universal Humanity and 2) Natural Law.
The first allows us to assume that there is a common essence of what makes man, wherever man may be in the world. The second is that we humans, by using our intellect and reason can deduce principles from nature.
I.e. Aristotle proposed that “man is by nature political” (Online Library of Liberty, 2014) such statement is based on the essence of man as a social being who lives in the polis (city-state). This is because man has a need to make himself better. And in order to attain a better life, he needs other people, and must please other people who happen to have their own concerns. Thus a political relationship exists among all humans.
Other such examples are – All men
want to be treated justly. Government
requires legitimacy.
These two begins the 2 scientific
questions which become the theme of almost every political idea. 1) What are the forms of polity? 2) What are
the standards used to evaluate polity?
Answer: 1) Aristotle’s 6 real types (which will change as time
progresses). 2) Principles of Universal
Humanity and Natural Law (which will have new ideas in time).
Both Plato and Aristotle contributes to us the theory of mixed constitutions as the best polity. This will carry to Rome during the time of Cicero (Rome) and St. Thomas Aquinas (Middle Ages), with Venice as the best proof of the theory in practice.
The Renaissance
The time when Europe is renewing
the lost knowledge and art of the past, which was destroyed during the dark
ages. Machiavelli becomes the father of
modern political science because of his value-free politics. Before him, political philosophers (note that
practitioners were not yet called scientists then) evaluate polity as pure
(good) or corrupt (bad). Machiavelli is
a realist, it’s not about good or bad.
It’s all about what actually gets results.
He was followed by Bodin who in turn made the polemic (philosophical attack) on mixed constitutions by reasoning (with evidence) that such mixed polities were actually authoritarian.
The Enlightenment
The beginning of reason eclipsing
metaphysics. The two fathers of opposing state of nature/social contract
theories Hobbes and Locke provides the progress in our history through the strength
of their logical rationalism. Both have
different opinions of humanity and the state of nature, and yet they were able
to theorize the legitimate purpose of government. Locke’s ideas would eventually become
foundation of the U.S. and the 1987 Philippine Constitutions.
Locke, with Montesquieu (title of Charles de Secondat, Baron of Montesquieu), and Publius (pen name of the 3 Federalist writers James Madison, Alexander Hamilton, and John Jay) also added to disciplinary improvement through actual testing of the philosophies of the past in the foundation of new government – the United States.
Locke’s was the social contract, and his version of the power of government.
Montesquieu formalized the
separation of powers.
The Federalists explained the
uses of a federal republic.
All three combined produced the polity
of presidential and federal system of government.
The achievements of this time period also include the improvement of the science-like approach used by the philosophers. There was the emphasis of balance in the separation of powers. And the use of logical equation-like reasoning of x+y=z [separation of powers + checks and balance = liberty (Almond)].
Note: Pls. post questions of clarifications and inquiry on the comment box.
References:
Almond, G. (1996). Political
Science: History of the Discipline. In R. Goodin, & H. Dieter-Klingemann, A
New Handbook of Political Science (pp. 3-49). New York: Oxford University
Press.
Goodin, R. & H.
Dieter-Klingemann (1996). Political Science: The Discipline. In R. Goodin,
& H. Dieter-Klingemann, A New Handbook of Political Science (pp.
3-49). New York: Oxford University Press.
Online Library of Liberty (2014, April 10). Acton-Creighton
Correspondence (1887). Retrieved from Online Library of Liberty: http://oll.libertyfund.org/pages/acton-creighton-correspondence-1887?q=power+corrupts#
--- (2014, April 10) Introduction
to The Politics of Aristotle, trans. into English with
introduction, marginal analysis, essays, notes and indices by B. Jowett.
Oxford, Clarendon Press, 1885. 2 vols. Vol. 1: http://oll.libertyfund.org/pages/aristotle-s-politics?q=aristotle#
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